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13 - Elections and Campaigns: Candidates and Voters in an Era of Demographic Change

Forms of Political Participation

Political participation extends beyond the act of voting, which is commonly associated with American civic engagement. As a vital part of democracy, political participation includes a variety of actions that connect citizens with their government.

Voting and Linkage Institutions

  • Voting: A primary method through which citizens choose their representatives.
  • Linkage Institutions: Structures like political parties, interest groups, and media that connect the public with the government.
  • Definition: A linkage institution refers to channels that connect individuals with the government, including elections, political parties, interest groups, and the media.

Other Forms of Participation

Citizens also engage in other significant activities to express their opinions and influence government actions:

  • Direct Contact: Using calls, emails, or social media to communicate directly with elected officials.
  • Campaign Involvement: Working on political campaigns to support candidates or causes.
  • Monetary Contributions: Donating to political campaigns to aid candidates or political parties.
  • Educational Outreach: Informing and educating others about political issues to raise awareness and support.

Social Movements

Participation can also take the form of joining social movements aimed at societal or political reform.

  • Definition: A social movement is the collective effort of individuals seeking social or political change with the objective of placing issues on the policy agenda.
  • Activities in Social Movements:
    • Participating in protests.
    • Attending political meetings.
    • Contacting elected officials.
    • Educating the public about specific issues.

International Perspective on Participation

While voting rates in the U.S. may be lower compared to other democracies, Americans often engage in other forms of political participation at rates comparable to or exceeding those in other countries.

The Right to Vote and Exercising That Right

Voting represents the most direct form of participation in selecting policymakers in democracies. Over time, the right to vote, or franchise, has expanded significantly in the United States.

The Expansion of Voting Rights

  • Early Voting Requirements: Initially, most states required property ownership, and voters were predominantly white male landholders.
  • Abolition of Property Requirements: By 1856, all states had removed property ownership as a voting requirement.
  • Key Amendments:
    • Fifteenth Amendment (1870): Prohibited voting discrimination based on race, although practical enforcement varied, especially in the South.
    • Nineteenth Amendment (1920): Extended voting rights to women.
    • Twenty-Sixth Amendment (1971): Lowered the voting age from twenty-one to eighteen.
    • Seventeenth Amendment (1913): Enabled direct election of U.S. senators.
    • Twenty-Fourth Amendment (1964): Eliminated poll taxes, which had suppressed voter turnout among the poor.

Definitions: - Franchise or suffrage: The right to vote. - Poll tax: A fee required to vote, historically used to discourage the poor from voting.

Factors Influencing Voter Turnout

Despite the expansion of voting rights, voter turnout in the U.S. remains low compared to other democratic nations, especially in midterm elections.

Reasons for Not Voting

  • Institutional Barriers: Varying state laws on voter registration and identification requirements.
  • Demographic Influences: Voter participation varies by socioeconomic status (SES), education, age, race, ethnicity, and gender.
  • Political Efficacy: Higher education levels increase a person’s confidence in their political impact.

Socioeconomic Status and Education

  • Higher SES and Education: Correlate with greater electoral participation due to better resources and awareness.
  • Labor Unions: Higher turnout among members due to organizational emphasis on political issues.

Age and Voter Participation

  • Younger Voters: Tend to participate less than older generations, influenced by mobility and registration challenges.

Racial and Ethnic Identities

  • Diverse Turnout Rates: While gaps have narrowed, significant differences in turnout rates persist across racial and ethnic groups.

Gender and Voter Turnout

  • Women’s Voting Rates: Women have voted at slightly higher rates than men since 1980, with variations across different age and racial groups.
  • Registration Requirements: Differ across states, affecting the ease of voting.
  • Identification Laws: Some states require photo ID, which can disenfranchise certain groups, like college students.

Efforts to Improve Turnout

  • Early and Absentee Voting: Offered by many states to make voting more accessible.
  • Proposals for Change: Suggestions include holding elections on weekends or declaring Election Day a national holiday to increase participation.

Democratic Representation and Theories of Voting Behavior

In American democracy, the structure of elections and the behavior of voters are shaped by a mix of constitutional safeguards, federalism, and various voting theories. These elements combine to influence how citizens participate in their governance through voting.

Constitutional Safeguards and Federalism

  • Indirect Representation: Originally, U.S. Senators were selected by state legislatures, and the President is elected indirectly through the Electoral College. These methods were intended to temper direct democratic influences.
  • State Control Over Elections: States have significant autonomy to set their own election rules, which has historically led to varied voting technologies and policies on voter eligibility, such as for convicted felons.

Voter Participation Challenges

Despite frequent elections across various government levels, many barriers inhibit voter participation: - Registration Processes: Complex and varied across states. - Voter Identification Laws: Can disenfranchise certain groups. - Logistical Challenges: Such as voting during a weekday.

Theories of Voting Behavior

Voting behavior is often analyzed through several theoretical lenses:

Rational Choice Voting

  • Definition: Voting based on what a citizen believes is in their best interest.
  • Theory: Voters act with the purpose of seeing their preferred policies enacted, while candidates and parties seek to maximize electoral success by aligning with popular voter preferences.

Retrospective Voting

  • Definition: Voting based on an assessment of an incumbent's past performance.
  • Use: Voters use past behaviors and outcomes to decide whether to keep or replace an incumbent. Interest groups may provide "congressional scorecards" to inform voters.

Prospective Voting

  • Definition: Casting a ballot for a candidate based on the policies they promise to enact in the future.
  • Example: Voters supporting a candidate who promises significant future policies, such as Donald Trump's 2016 campaign promise to build a wall.

Party-Line Voting

  • Definition: Voting for candidates of one political party across all positions on the ballot.
  • Function: Simplifies the voting process for those who identify with or trust a particular party's platform, regardless of their knowledge of individual candidates.

Functions of Elections

Elections play critical roles in shaping the national agenda, maintaining government legitimacy, and ensuring representative democracy:

  • Agenda Setting: Elections can redefine national priorities and issues.
  • Legitimacy and Mandate: Winning by significant margins can empower elected officials to enact their proposed policies.
  • Accountability: Voters have the power to retain or remove officials from office based on their performance and alignment with voter preferences.

Politics of Presidential Elections

U.S. Constitution Basics

  • Requirements: Presidents must be at least 35 years old, born in the U.S., and have resided in the country for 14 years.
  • Frequency: Presidential elections occur every four years.
  • Electoral College: Presidents are selected through the Electoral College, with separate votes for president and vice president as per the Twelfth Amendment (1804).

Stages of Presidential Campaigns

Before the Official Campaign

  • Foundations: Presidential hopefuls start preparations years in advance by fundraising and connecting with party officials.
  • Exploratory Committee: Used to attract media, test public opinion, and gauge voter interest.

Nomination Process

  • Competition: Candidates from the same party vie for the party’s nomination.
  • Control: While federal and state laws influence the nomination process, party-specific rules play a significant role.
  • Primary Types:
  • Open Primaries: Any eligible voter can participate, sometimes requiring same-day party affiliation.
  • Closed Primaries: Only pre-registered party members can vote.
  • Caucuses: Party members gather to discuss and choose delegates.

National Conventions

  • Purpose: Conclude the nomination phase and solidify the party’s presidential candidate.

General Election

  • Post-Convention: Candidates, now experienced, must appeal not only to their core supporters but also to independents and undecided voters.
  • Challenges: Maintaining enthusiasm among core supporters while reaching out to the middle ground.

Electoral College

Key Points

  • Mechanism: Voters actually elect a slate of electors who are pledged to vote for a specific nominee.
  • Winning Threshold: A minimum of 270 Electoral College votes is needed to win the presidency.
  • Distribution: Electoral votes are allocated based on each state’s congressional representation, plus three for the District of Columbia.
  • Exceptions: Maine and Nebraska use a mixed approach of district-level and statewide allocation.
  • Faithless Electors: Although rare, there are instances where electors do not vote as pledged.

Special Scenarios

  • House Decision: If no candidate secures a majority in the Electoral College, the House of Representatives chooses the president from the top three vote-getters.

Critiques and Support of the Electoral College

Criticisms

  • Undemocratic: Critics argue it does not accurately reflect the popular will, potentially lowering voter turnout in non-competitive states.
  • Focus Issues: May lead candidates to concentrate efforts only in populous or competitive areas.

Support

  • Federalism: Proponents claim it protects state influence and prevents dominance of populous urban centers in presidential elections.