How was segregation happening in the North and South?
South: Segregation in the southern states of the United States was enforced through Jim Crow laws, which mandated racial segregation in public spaces and limited opportunities for African Americans.
North: Segregation in the North was primarily de facto, with African Americans facing discrimination in housing, employment, education, and public accommodations despite the absence of explicit laws.
How many black families lived in poverty in the 1950s and why?
Half
Black families in the 1950s lived in poverty due to widespread racial discrimination, limited job opportunities, unequal educational opportunities, racial disparities in social and economic policies, and the systemic effects of historical oppression.
According to Early Warren, in Brown v. Education, what were the effects of segregation?
Segregation of white and colored children in public schools has a detrimental effect upon the colored children, impeding their social development and creating a divisive environment that perpetuates racial inequality and reinforces discriminatory attitudes and practices.
The impact is greater when it has the sanction of the law, as it implies the inferiority of the black group, resulting in a sense of inferiority that affects a child's motivation to learn and hinders their educational and mental development within a racially segregated school system.
What were two examples of “Massive Resistance”?
School Closures in Prince Edward County, Virginia: In 1959, as a response to the court-ordered desegregation of public schools, Prince Edward County closed all public schools rather than integrating them. The closure lasted for several years, depriving black students of education and forcing many to seek alternative schooling options.
Flying the Confederate Battle Flag: Some states, such as Alabama and South Carolina, engaged in symbolic acts of resistance by flying the Confederate Battle flag over their state capitol buildings. The Confederate flag, seen as a symbol of racism and white supremacy, represented opposition to desegregation and civil rights advancements.
What organizations played a major role in the Civil Rights Movement?
NAACP and SCLC
Jim Crow Laws
What was the purpose of Jim Crow Laws?
The purpose of Jim Crow Laws was to institutionalize and enforce racial segregation and white supremacy in the southern United States.
How did Jim Crow Laws enforce that purpose?
Legalized Segregation: The laws mandated the separation of public facilities, such as schools, transportation, and public spaces, based on race, creating separate and unequal systems for black and white individuals.
Voter Disenfranchisement: Jim Crow Laws imposed discriminatory voting restrictions, including poll taxes, literacy tests, and the grandfather clause, which effectively denied African Americans their right to vote, ensuring white political dominance.
Social Norms and Enforcement: The laws were reinforced by societal norms and enforced through social and economic pressures, intimidation, violence, and threats from white supremacist groups, ensuring compliance with segregation and racial hierarchy.
Limited Economic Opportunities: Jim Crow Laws restricted economic opportunities for African Americans, including job discrimination, lower wages, and unequal access to education and resources, further entrenching racial inequality and economic disparity.
Cultural and Psychological Impact: The laws propagated racist ideologies, stereotypes, and stigmatization, fostering a climate of fear, dehumanization, and internalized racism among African Americans, perpetuating white supremacy and racial divisions.
Why did southern legislators pass what would later become known as Jim Crow Laws?
Southern legislators passed what would later become known as Jim Crow Laws to establish and enforce a system of racial segregation and white supremacy, aiming to maintain social, economic, and political control over African Americans in the post-Civil War era.
Why was the Grandfather Clause enacted AND what was it?
The Grandfather Clause was enacted as a means to circumvent the 15th Amendment and the prohibition of denying anyone the right to vote based on race, by allowing white voters to bypass literacy tests and poll taxes if their grandfathers had been eligible to vote.
The Grandfather Clause was a provision that exempted individuals from certain voting requirements if their grandfathers had been eligible to vote, effectively creating a loophole to maintain white political power and disenfranchise black voters who did not have ancestors with voting rights due to slavery and discrimination.
Plessy V. Ferguson
What was the Supreme Court decision in this case?
The Supreme Court decision in the Plessy v. Ferguson case upheld racial segregation under the "separate but equal" doctrine, allowing for legally enforced segregation in public facilities.
Why was Homer Plessy arrested?
Homer Plessy was arrested for refusing to give up his seat in a train car designated for white passengers, in violation of Louisiana's Separate Car Act.
What was the death valve for the “separate but equal” clause?
The landmark Supreme Court ruling in Brown v. Board of Education in 1954 served as the death knell for the "separate but equal" doctrine, declaring racial segregation in public schools unconstitutional.
Wilmington Race Riots
What was the effect of the Wilmington Race Riots?
The Wilmington Race Riots of 1898 resulted in the destruction of the African American community, the loss of lives, the suppression of black voting rights, and the entrenchment of segregation for decades to come.
In the late 1890s, what changed the political atmosphere of North Carolina?
The election of Republican governor Daniel Russell in the late 1890s changed the political atmosphere of North Carolina.
List 3 ways that the election of Governor Russel improved the lives of African Americans?
Economic Opportunities: Governor Russell's administration could have implemented policies to promote economic development, job creation, and entrepreneurship, which might have provided African Americans with increased opportunities for economic advancement and financial stability.
Education Initiatives: The election of Governor Russell might have led to initiatives focused on improving access to education for African Americans. This could include expanding school infrastructure, increasing funding for black schools, or supporting efforts to enhance educational opportunities for African American students.
Advocacy for Civil Rights: Governor Russell, as a Republican, may have advocated for policies aimed at protecting the civil rights of African Americans. This could include support for anti-discrimination laws, equal access to public facilities, or efforts to address systemic racism.
How did the Red Shirts intimidate the black citizens in Wilmington?
Racist Rallies: The Red Shirts held racist rallies, which served as public displays of white supremacy and aimed to instill fear and intimidation among the black community. These rallies often involved inflammatory speeches and propaganda that depicted African Americans as corrupt and detrimental to white society.
Disruption of Church Services: The Red Shirts targeted African American church services, disrupting them to create an atmosphere of intimidation and to undermine the sense of community and unity among black citizens. By targeting religious gatherings, they sought to demoralize and suppress the black population.
Armed Displays and Patrols: The Red Shirts openly carried weapons and patrolled the streets of Wilmington. Their armed presence served as a constant reminder of their ability and willingness to resort to violence, creating a climate of fear and insecurity for African Americans.
Distribution of Propaganda: The Red Shirts, along with the White Government League, distributed flyers and political cartoons that vilified African Americans and portrayed them as a threat to white society. This propaganda campaign aimed to further marginalize and dehumanize the black community, reinforcing the narrative of white supremacy and justifying their acts of intimidation.
What demands did the white men demand in the “White Man’s Declaration of Independent”?
Removal of Alex Manly and The Daily Record: The immediate removal of Alex Manly, an African American newspaper editor, and the shutdown of his newspaper, The Daily Record, which was known for its progressive views on race relations.
Resignation of Mayor and Chief of Police: The resignation of the mayor and the chief of police, who were likely seen as obstacles to the white supremacists' goal of taking control of the city and suppressing African American influence.
What did the mob do on November 10?
On November 10, the white mob attacked and destroyed the black-owned newspaper office of Alex Manly, leading to widespread violence and terror in the African American community of Wilmington.
After being elected Mayor what did Waddell say to African American political, economic, and religious leaders?
After being elected Mayor, Alfred Waddell and his posse issued warnings to African American political, economic, and religious leaders that they must leave the city or face physical harm or even death.
Where did many African American familied flee to after the riots?
After the Wilmington race riots, many African American families fled the city and sought safer homes in communities in Brunswick County.
Jackie Robinson Breaks the Color Barrier & Anger
What did Jackie Robinson do?
Jackie Robinson broke the color barrier in Major League Baseball, becoming the first African American player in the modern era and paving the way for racial integration in professional sports.
Why were whites and blacks angry with Jackie Robinson?
Whites and blacks were angry with Jackie Robinson due to racial prejudice and resistance to the breaking of racial segregation norms in sports and society.
What stereotype was Jackie Robinson accused of when being assertive?
Jackie Robinson was accused of the stereotype of being an "angry black man" when he asserted himself and stood up against racial discrimination.
Armed Services Desegregated
What did Executive Order 9981 do?
Executive Order 9981, signed by President Truman, ended racial segregation in the U.S. Armed Forces, promoting equality and fair treatment for all service members regardless of race or ethnicity.
Brown V. Board of Education
What was the Supreme Court decision in this case?
The Supreme Court decision in Brown v. Board of Education, handed down on May 17, 1954, declared racial segregation in public schools to be unconstitutional, overturning the "separate but equal" doctrine established in Plessy v. Ferguson.
What were John Davis’ views on the “separate but equal” clause?
John Davis, the attorney representing the Topeka Board of Education in the Brown v. Board of Education case, argued in favor of maintaining the "separate but equal" doctrine, asserting that segregation was not inherently unequal.
What was the ruling in the Brown v. Board of Education?
The ruling in the Brown v. Board of Education case was that racial segregation in public schools violated the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, and therefore, such segregation was unconstitutional. The Court held that separate educational facilities for black and white students were inherently unequal and could not provide equal educational opportunities.
According to Vernon E. Jordan, this decision was the "Magna Carta of human rights struggles”.
Emmet Till’s Murder
Summarized what happened to Emmet Till.
Emmett Till, a 14-year-old African American boy, was brutally beaten, tortured, and murdered in 1955 in Mississippi after allegedly whistling at a white woman.
Carolyn Bryant Recants Story
What did Carolyn Bryant say to Timothy Tyson about the case of Emmett Till?
In her conversation with Timothy Tyson, Carolyn Bryant admitted that she couldn't recall the specific details of her encounter with Emmett Till and that her testimony during the trial was exaggerated and false.
What did she say regarding Emmett’s murder?
Carolyn Bryant did not provide any new information or address her involvement in the actual events of Emmett Till's murder in her conversation with Timothy Tyson.
Carolyn Bryant was terrified of her husband, he was verbally abusive and it is not clear if he sometimes got physical, do you think that justifies her actions?
While Carolyn Bryant's fear of her abusive husband may have influenced her actions, it does not justify making false accusations that led to the tragic murder of Emmett Till.
How did the murder and the open casket funeral of Emmett Till change civil rights?
The murder of Emmett Till and the public outrage generated by his open casket funeral played a significant role in raising awareness about racial injustice and galvanizing the civil rights movement.
Montgomery Bus Boycott
What sparked this massive protest?
The Montgomery Bus Boycott was sparked by the arrest of Rosa Parks, an African American woman who refused to give up her seat to a white passenger on a segregated bus in Montgomery, Alabama, on December 1, 1955.
Civil Rights Act of 1957
Even though it was ineffective, what was the importance of the Civil Rights Act of 1957?
Despite being limited in its impact, the Civil Rights Act of 1957 was significant as it was the first federal civil rights legislation passed since Reconstruction, marking a symbolic step towards addressing racial discrimination and paving the way for subsequent civil rights legislation.
Little Rock Desegregation
What happened when the Arkansas National Guard was ordered to block the Little Rock 9 from going to school?
When the Arkansas National Guard was ordered to block the Little Rock 9, a group of African American students, from entering Central High School in 1957, it resulted in a standoff between state and federal authorities, highlighting the resistance to racial integration and the struggle for equal education opportunities.
What was school like for the Little Rock 9?
School was incredibly challenging for the Little Rock 9 as they faced intense harassment, discrimination, and violence from white students and community members, making their educational experience extremely difficult and hostile.
What did the principal of Central High School say to Ernest Green regarding graduation AND what was his response?
The principal of Central High School, Jess Matthews, informed Ernest Green that due to the volatile situation and safety concerns, it would be best for him not to attend the graduation ceremony.
Ernest Green, in response, firmly asserted that he had worked hard and earned the right to graduate, stating that he would attend the ceremony regardless, highlighting his determination to overcome obstacles and stand up for his achievements.
Woolworth’s Sit In
What sparked the sit-in?
The sit-in at Woolworth's in Greensboro, North Carolina, was sparked by the refusal to serve African American customers at the store's segregated lunch counter on February 1, 1960.
What kind of weapons were used?
The sit-in participants did not use weapons. They employed peaceful, nonviolent tactics such as sitting at the lunch counter and requesting service, despite facing verbal and physical abuse from some onlookers.
What happened to Memphis Norman?
He was beat up and kicked
Freedom Rides
Why were freedom riders arrested?
Freedom riders were arrested for challenging racial segregation by sitting in integrated spaces, such as bus stations and waiting areas, in the Southern states.
What happened after the bus’s tires blew out?
After the bus's tires blew out, a mob of white supremacists attacked the freedom riders with violence and brutality in Anniston, Alabama, burning the bus and injuring the riders.
What did the Supreme Court decisions, that inspired the freedom rides, in 1946 and 1960 rule?
The Supreme Court decisions that inspired the freedom rides were Morgan v. Virginia in 1946, which ruled that segregation in interstate bus travel was unconstitutional, and Boynton v. Virginia in 1960, which extended the ruling to include bus station facilities.
Who took up the cause of the Freedom Rides after CORE dropped out?
After the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) dropped out, the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) took up the cause of the Freedom Rides, organizing and participating in the rides to continue the protest against racial segregation.
How did television help the cause?
Television played a crucial role in bringing the plight of the freedom riders to a national audience. The violent attacks and mistreatment of the riders were captured on camera and broadcasted widely, creating public outrage and increasing support for the civil rights movement. The images on television helped raise awareness and generate sympathy for the cause, contributing to the pressure for desegregation and equal rights.
Ole Miss Riot
Why is James Meredith’s acceptance from Ole Miss revoked?
James Meredith's acceptance from the University of Mississippi (Ole Miss) was initially revoked due to his race. The university officials, influenced by segregationist sentiments, sought to prevent his enrollment as an African American student.
What are the actions of the federal government?
In response to the revocation of Meredith's acceptance, the federal government, under the order of President John F. Kennedy, intervened and took action to enforce Meredith's right to attend the university. This included deploying federal marshals and National Guard troops to ensure his safe entry and enrollment.
What does Meredith end up being once he graduates from Ole Miss?
After successfully graduating from Ole Miss in 1963, James Meredith became known as a civil rights activist and advocate. He continued his involvement in the movement and played a significant role in promoting racial equality and education throughout his life.
Medgar Evers Assassinated
Summarize what happens to Byron De La Beckwith after the murder of Medgar Evers.
After the murder of Medgar Evers, Byron De La Beckwith, the primary suspect, initially evaded conviction as two all-white juries in 1964 failed to reach a verdict. It was not until 1994 that he was finally convicted for the assassination and sentenced to life in prison, where he remained until his death in 2001.
When/Where did Medgar Evars realize how restricted Jim Crow laws were in the South?
Medgar Evers realized the extent of the restrictions imposed by Jim Crow laws in the South during his service in World War II. While stationed in France, he witnessed the absence of racial segregation and experienced a sense of equality that contrasted sharply with the segregation and discrimination prevalent in the United States.
What organization did De La Beckwith belong to?
Byron De La Beckwith was a member of the White Citizens' Council, a white supremacist organization that opposed racial integration and advocated for the maintenance of segregation in the South.
What new evidence came to light in 1994 AND what is different in this trial?
In 1994, new evidence came to light in the form of documents and statements linking Byron De La Beckwith to the assassination of Medgar Evers. These included a diary entry and a recorded conversation where Beckwith made incriminating statements about his involvement in the murder.
One significant difference in the 1994 trial compared to the previous trials was the presence of a more diverse jury. Unlike the all-white juries in the earlier trials, the 1994 trial had African American representation, allowing for a more diverse perspective and potentially a different approach to evaluating the evidence. This change in jury composition may have played a role in the eventual conviction of Beckwith for the assassination of Medgar Evers.
University of Alabama Desegregated
How did George Wallace attempt to stop James Hood and Vivian Malone from enrolling at the University of Alabama?
George Wallace, then Governor of Alabama, attempted to physically block James Hood and Vivian Malone from enrolling at the University of Alabama by standing in the doorway of Foster Auditorium, a university building, and refusing to step aside. He was making a symbolic protest against the federal government's push for desegregation.
How did JFK react to Wallace’s political stunt?
President John F. Kennedy (JFK) reacted to George Wallace's political stunt by federalizing the Alabama National Guard and issuing Executive Order 11111. This order placed the National Guard under federal control and authorized them to ensure the enrollment of Hood and Malone by protecting their safety and facilitating their entry into the university. JFK's action demonstrated the federal government's determination to enforce desegregation and uphold the rule of law.
March on Washington
What was the biggest impact of the March on Washington?
The biggest impact of the March on Washington was the successful advocacy for civil rights and the push for legislative change, leading to the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965.
What was unique, at that time, about the March on Washington?
At that time, the March on Washington was unique due to its size, with an estimated 250,000 participants, making it one of the largest political rallies for civil rights in American history.
What did Martin Luther King’s speech do?
Martin Luther King Jr.'s speech during the March on Washington, known as the "I Have a Dream" speech, became one of the most iconic speeches in American history. It powerfully articulated the dream of racial equality, justice, and harmony, resonating with millions and galvanizing the civil rights movement.
True/False. There were several acts of violence during the March on Washington
False
16th Street Baptist Church Bombing
What was the purpose of this attack AND did it work?
The purpose of the 16th Street Baptist Church bombing, which occurred on September 15, 1963, in Birmingham, Alabama, was to intimidate and instill fear within the African American community and the civil rights movement. The attack aimed to disrupt the progress of the civil rights movement and discourage African Americans from advocating for their rights.
In terms of achieving its immediate goals, the attack can be seen as partially successful in generating fear and terrorizing the community. However, the bombing also had unintended consequences. The tragedy sparked national outrage and drew attention to the brutality of racial violence, galvanizing support for the civil rights movement and strengthening the resolve of activists. The incident played a role in mobilizing public opinion and pushing for greater civil rights reforms.
Mississippi Burning
Why did Michael Schwerner and Andrew Goodman in Mississippi?
Michael Schwerner and Andrew Goodman traveled to Mississippi in 1964 as part of the Freedom Summer campaign organized by civil rights organizations, including the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) and the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC). They aimed to register African American voters and assist in organizing grassroots movements for civil rights.
What happened to Schwerner, Goodman, and Chaney after they were released from jail?
After being released from jail in Neshoba County, Mississippi, Michael Schwerner, Andrew Goodman, and James Chaney were abducted by members of the Ku Klux Klan. They were then brutally murdered on June 21, 1964. Their disappearance and subsequent murders became a prominent and tragic example of racial violence during the civil rights era.
Where were their bodies found?
The bodies of Michael Schwerner, Andrew Goodman, and James Chaney were discovered buried in an earthen dam near Philadelphia, Mississippi, on August 4, 1964, following an extensive FBI investigation. The discovery of their bodies and the subsequent arrests and trials of the perpetrators brought national attention to the issue of racial violence and the struggle for civil rights in the United States.
Civil Rights Act of 1964
What were the 11 titles of the Civil Rights Act?
Title I: Voting Rights and Equal Access to Public Facilities
Title II: Public Accommodations
Title III: Desegregation of Public Facilities
Title IV: School Desegregation
Title V: Commission on Civil Rights
Title VI: Nondiscrimination in Federally Assisted Programs
Title VII: Equal Employment Opportunity
Title VIII: Registration and Voting Statistics
Title IX: Intervention and Removal of Discrimination in Public Education
Title X: Community Relations Service
Title XI: Miscellaneous Provisions
Selma to Montgomery March
What was the biggest impact of the Selma to Montgomery March?
The biggest impact of the Selma to Montgomery March was its role in galvanizing public support and catalyzing the passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which significantly advanced voting rights for African Americans and helped dismantle systemic barriers to their participation in the democratic process.
Voting Rights Act of 1965
Why is this considered one of the best pieces of civil rights legislation in US history?
The Voting Rights Act of 1965 is considered one of the best pieces of civil rights legislation in US history because it effectively protected voting rights, dismantled discriminatory practices, and increased African American voter participation, contributing to the advancement of democracy and equality.
Why was the Voting Rights Act of 1965 necessary?
The Voting Rights Act of 1965 was necessary because it aimed to address and rectify widespread racial discrimination and voter suppression tactics that disproportionately affected African Americans, ensuring equal access to the electoral process for all citizens.
Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.
Why was Martin Luther King Jr. in Memphis?
Martin Luther King Jr. was in Memphis to support the strike of African American sanitation workers who were seeking better wages, improved working conditions, and recognition of their union.
What happened after the death of Martin Luther King Jr.?
After the death of Martin Luther King Jr., there were widespread protests, riots, and expressions of grief and anger across the United States. The assassination sparked a national outcry and intensified the civil rights movement. It also led to mourning, calls for justice, and renewed efforts to carry forward King's vision of racial equality and social justice.
Fair Housing Act
Why was this law important?
The Fair Housing Act was important because it prohibited discrimination in the rental, sale, and financing of housing based on factors such as race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. It aimed to promote equal access to housing opportunities and combat systemic discrimination in housing markets.
What was “white flight”?
"White flight" refers to the phenomenon that occurred in the mid-20th century, particularly in the United States, where white residents, often in response to racial integration efforts or the arrival of minority populations in their neighborhoods, rapidly moved out of urban areas to suburban or predominantly white communities, leading to racial segregation and the decline of inner cities.
Currently, which groups do not have access to fair housing?
While progress has been made, there are still groups that face barriers to fair housing. This includes individuals and families experiencing discrimination based on their race, color, religion, sex, national origin, disability, familial status, or other protected characteristics under fair housing laws. Marginalized communities, low-income individuals, racial and ethnic minorities, people with disabilities, and others facing systemic inequalities often encounter challenges in accessing fair and affordable housing.
It is important to note that fair housing laws aim to protect all individuals from discrimination and ensure equal access to housing opportunities. However, despite legal protections, discriminatory practices and disparities persist, making it essential to continue working towards fair and equitable housing for all.