The news media have significantly influenced American political culture and public attitudes toward government and politics since before the nation's founding.
As a linkage institution, the media facilitates communication between citizens and government, shaped extensively by technological advancements.
The Print Media and a New Nation
During the late 1780s, newspapers emerged as a prominent force in American political life, particularly highlighted by their role in the debates over the Constitution’s ratification.
Freedom of the Press and the Ratification Debates
The press was instrumental in the ratification debates of the Constitution, with essays and editorials prolifically contributed under pseudonyms.
The First Amendment, promising press freedom, became a cornerstone of American democracy, crucial for the ratification of the Constitution.
The Media Goes "Mass"
Penny Presses: Newspapers became more accessible in the 1830s with the advent of the penny press, drastically reducing costs and expanding readership.
Partisanship and Scandal: Newspapers often focused on sensational stories to boost sales and attract advertisers.
Journalists as Investigators and Activists
Investigative Journalism: Emerged in the nineteenth century, transforming journalists into detectives who sought to uncover malfeasance and influence public opinion, especially during the Progressive Era with the rise of muckrakers.
Direct to Americans’ Homes: Radio and Television
Broadcast Media: Radio and television brought political figures and events directly into American homes, making political news a more immediate and shared experience.
Influence of Television: The first televised presidential debates in 1960 between Kennedy and Nixon illustrated the powerful visual impact of television on public perception.
Media Evolution in the Late 20th Century
Partisan Shifts: The 1980s saw a marked change with media targeting narrower audiences, leading to increased polarization.
Cable News: CNN and Fox News epitomized the shift towards 24-hour news cycles and partisan coverage.
New Media: New Freedom and New Problems
Digital Platforms: The internet and digital media have further diversified how news is consumed and produced, enabling users to function as journalists and commentators.
Polarization Concerns: Despite the increased accessibility of information, the ideological leanings of news sources may intensify political polarization.
Public Policy Regulating Content and Ownership
Introduction to Media Regulation
The government regulates the media focusing primarily on content and ownership to balance freedom of the press with the need to maintain liberty and order.
The Changing Nature of Regulation
Early Regulations
Radio Act of 1927: Introduced licensing for broadcasters to manage frequency use.
Communications Act of 1934: Established the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) to oversee broadcast media, enhancing governmental oversight.
Supreme Court and Media Freedom
New York Times Co. v. United States (1971): Affirmed that the government could not preemptively censor publications unless national security was at risk, reinforcing the press's role in a democratic society.
Modern Challenges
The rise of the internet and social media has complicated the regulation of content due to the First Amendment protections of free expression.
Public Policy and Media Consolidation
Historical Context
Initially, regulations prevented excessive media consolidation to ensure a diversity of viewpoints and maintain a healthy democratic public discourse.
Changes in Regulation
1980s Deregulation: Initiated under FCC Chairman Mark Fowler, who advocated for fewer regulations on media ownership.
Telecommunications Act of 1996: Allowed significant media consolidation by increasing the audience reach limits and the number of media outlets a single entity could own.
Effects of Consolidation
Media Consolidation: Defined as the concentration of media ownership by fewer corporations, affecting the diversity of information and viewpoints.
Impact on News Reporting: Corporate decisions often dictate news coverage, potentially skewing the public agenda and underreporting critical issues like human rights and climate change.
Legal and Political Developments
Net Neutrality: Debated extensively, with policies fluctuating between administrations. The Obama era FCC supported net neutrality to ensure equal internet access, but it was later repealed during the Trump administration.
How the Media Shape American Politics Today
The Political Perils of the New Media
Rise of Social Media: Platforms like Facebook and Twitter allow direct communication from politicians to citizens, vastly changing the dynamics of public engagement.
Constant Surveillance: Politicians must navigate a world where any remark can be instantly publicized through social media, increasing the stakes of every public appearance.
The New Media and the Reshaping of What Is News
Infotainment: News outlets blend information with entertainment to attract viewers, often at the cost of diluting the focus on significant political and economic issues.
Impact on Public Perception: Shows like The Daily Show may increase political awareness but also foster cynicism towards government institutions.
Bias and Coverage of the News
Perceived Partisan Bias: There's a growing perception of partisan bias in media, influenced by the political leanings of journalists and the stories covered by media outlets.
Decline in Trust: Confidence in traditional news sources, especially TV news, has significantly declined, influenced by accusations of bias and sensationalism.
The Media as Shapers of Political Campaigns and Elections
Horse-Race Journalism: Media often focuses more on the competitive aspects of campaigns rather than substantive policy issues, affecting public perception of elections.
Control of the Message: Politicians and campaigns actively manage media interactions to shape public reception of their messages, often limiting access to control narratives.
A Digital Divide?
Inequality in Media Access: The proliferation of digital media creates disparities in political engagement and knowledge, with those less digitally savvy at a disadvantage.
Digital Divide: Demographic factors such as age, income, and education level influence the extent to which different groups engage with digital media, potentially widening gaps in political knowledge and participation.
A Credibility Divide?
Navigating Media Credibility: The abundance of sources, including satirical and citizen journalism, complicates the ability of individuals to discern reliable news, necessitating a critical approach to media consumption.
Responsibility of the Public: There's an increased need for critical media literacy among citizens to maintain an informed electorate in a democracy.