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14 - Political Parties: The Outsiders versus the Establishment

Functions of Political Parties

Overview

Political parties serve as linkage institutions, connecting citizens with government. They provide a platform for promoting diverse ideas and candidates, offering voters a choice in representation.

Roles of Political Parties

According to political scientist V. O. Key Jr., political parties in American representative democracy fulfill three main roles:

  • As Organizations: They recruit, nominate, and support candidates for political office.
  • In the Electorate: They offer labels (like "R" for Republican or "D" for Democrat) that help voters identify candidates that align with their own political ideologies.
  • In Government: Parties implement their members' policy positions and act as opposition to the majority party when in the minority.

Parties as Organizations

Parties unite individuals with similar social, economic, and ideological goals, supporting candidates for various governmental levels. They are involved in educating voters, fundraising, and developing media strategies. Challenges have arisen, particularly due to campaign finance laws and significant external fundraising by groups as a result of the Supreme Court's Citizens United decision.

Party Identification and Voter Influence

  • Party Identification: Reflects the degree of connection a voter has with a political party, influencing their voting behavior and political actions.
  • Straight-Ticket Voting: Voters choose candidates solely based on party affiliation, a common feature in some state ballots.

The Party in Government

  • Party Platform: At national conventions, party members define their stance on various issues through a platform, although these are not binding on elected officials.
  • Leadership and Governance: The national party chair, often selected by the sitting president from the same party, plays a significant role in fundraising and media representation. The party's influence varies between the national and state levels, with state parties sometimes influencing national party policies.

Recruitment and Support for Candidates

Parties actively seek and support candidates who align with their philosophies and can potentially win elections. This includes providing expertise, campaign staff, and voter targeting strategies. For instance, during the 2016 campaign, the Democratic Party used an algorithm to optimize campaign strategies, while President Trump's campaign employed a data management firm for voter targeting.

  • Independent Voters: There has been a significant increase in voters identifying as independents, reflecting dissatisfaction with the two major parties and their effectiveness in governance.
  • Split-Ticket Voting: The trend of voting for candidates from different parties in the same election has declined, indicating stronger party loyalty among voters.

Development of American Political Parties

Overview of American Political Parties

For the past 150 years, American politics have predominantly been dominated by two major parties: the Democratic and Republican parties. These parties form coalitions of various voter groups to support their candidates and policies over time.

Shifts in Party Coalitions

Party coalitions are dynamic and change over time due to shifting political, social, and economic landscapes. Significant shifts have included:

  • New Deal Coalition: This included northern liberals, African Americans, and white southerners until it fractured over civil rights in 1964.
  • Southern Strategy: This strategy helped Nixon and later Trump to realign political support from certain demographic groups, such as southern whites and blue-collar whites in the Rust Belt.

Realignment and Critical Elections

Realignment occurs when a significant portion of voters shifts their allegiance from one party to another, often marked by critical elections that change the balance of power.

  • Party Eras: Extended periods where one party predominates national elections.
  • Divided Government: A trend where different parties control the presidency and Congress, common since 1969.

Modern American Party Politics

Key developments in modern party politics include:

  • Shifts in Party Bases: The Republican Party shifted its base from the Northeast to the South and West in the mid-1960s, influenced by reactions to the Civil Rights Act and cultural changes.
  • Impact of Scandals and Political Shifts: Events like the Watergate scandal and economic issues have periodically shifted party fortunes and voter support.

Evolution of Party Strategies

Both parties have continually adapted to changing political and demographic trends:

  • Republican Strategies: Included adopting a "compassionate conservative" approach and redistricting to gain advantages in congressional elections.
  • Democratic Challenges: Despite successes at the presidential level, Democrats have struggled to maintain control in Congress and state legislatures, influenced by internal divisions and strategic challenges.

Future of Political Parties

Both parties face the need to adapt to a politically polarized environment and changing voter demographics. Issues such as economic inequality, social policies, and party elitism continue to shape the political landscape.

Parties and Political Campaigns

Overview of Political Campaigns

Political parties play a crucial role at all levels of political campaigns, involving several key phases:

  • Decision to Run: Often influenced by party leaders and activists.
  • Nomination Process: Parties select their candidates through formal processes involving primaries, caucuses, and national conventions.
  • Election Campaign Support: Parties provide significant backing for their nominees during election campaigns.

The Nomination Process

Primaries and Caucuses

  • Primary Elections: Voters in a state select party nominees through secret ballots. Primaries can be open or closed, affecting who can participate in selecting a party’s nominee.
  • Caucuses: Public meetings where voters openly support candidates, leading to the selection of delegates.

Types of Primaries

  • Open Primaries: Allow all eligible voters to participate, regardless of party affiliation.
  • Closed Primaries: Only party-registered voters can participate, ensuring that nominees reflect the party's core supporters.

Delegate Selection

  • Republican Party: Often uses a winner-take-all system or a hybrid with proportional allocation.
  • Democratic Party: Primarily uses a proportional system. Superdelegates, who are party elites, can support any candidate irrespective of primary results.

Challenges in the Nomination Process

Influence of Early Primaries

States like Iowa and New Hampshire play significant roles due to their early scheduling, which can disproportionately influence the nomination process.

Party Influence and Strategy

  • Front-Loading: States schedule their primaries early to gain political leverage.
  • National Convention Dynamics: While once contentious, now more ceremonial and promotional, focusing on energizing the party base.

Modern Party Campaign Strategies

Shift to Candidate-Centered Campaigns

Candidates increasingly formulate their own strategies and raise funds independently, reducing the influence of party elites.

Reevaluation of Party Strategies

Following significant electoral defeats, both major parties have undertaken efforts to reassess and reform their approaches to better appeal to a broader electorate.

Analysis of Political Processes

Comparing Party Strategies

  • Republican Growth and Opportunity Project: Focused on modernizing and expanding voter appeal beyond traditional bases.
  • Democratic National Narrative Project: Aimed at clarifying and communicating core party values to attract a diverse electorate.

Third Parties in the U.S. Political System

Overview of the U.S. Two-Party System

Despite the lack of legal requirements for a two-party system, the U.S. predominantly features two major political parties: the Democratic and Republican parties. This system contrasts with other nations that have multiple-party systems or single-party-dominant systems, influenced by different electoral frameworks like proportional representation.

Key Systems:

  • Two-Party System: Dominant in U.S. politics, where two political parties dominate almost all elections.
  • Proportional Representation System: Parties receive legislative seats proportional to the percentage of votes they obtain nationally.

Electoral Systems and Third Parties

The U.S. uses a single-member plurality system for Congressional elections and a winner-take-all system in the Electoral College, both of which discourage the success of third parties by favoring the candidate with the most votes, regardless of an absolute majority.

Challenges for Third Parties:

  • Electoral Influence: Third-party candidates often struggle to win electoral votes due to the difficulty in securing a plurality.
  • Policy Influence: Though rarely winning significant offices, third-party agendas can influence major party platforms when they address issues neglected by the major parties.

Prominent Third-Party Influences

Historical instances show third-party impacts on U.S. elections:

  • 1968: George Wallace, advocating segregation, secured electoral votes in southern states.
  • 1980: John Anderson, running as a moderate, received a notable percentage of votes but no electoral votes.
  • 1992: Ross Perot, focusing on federal budget deficits, garnered nearly 19% of the popular vote.
  • 2000: Ralph Nader’s candidacy is noted for potentially influencing the outcome by siphoning votes from Al Gore.

Barriers to Third-Party Success

Third parties face numerous obstacles, from systemic electoral barriers to specific tactics by major parties to limit their exposure and impact.

Examples of Barriers:

  • Debate Participation: Third-party candidates often struggle to meet the 15% support threshold required for inclusion in national televised debates.
  • Ballot Access: Stringent local requirements for signature collection can prevent third-party candidates from appearing on ballots.

2016 Election: A Case Study

The 2016 presidential election highlighted the challenges and roles of third parties amidst widespread dissatisfaction with the major party candidates. Third-party candidates like Gary Johnson and Jill Stein drew votes but did not significantly challenge the primary candidates.